NOTICE UNDER NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT REGARDING DISHONOUR CHEQUE
REGISTERED A.D.
To,
Sh.(Name & Address)
________________
Sub:- Notice under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act for Cheque Dishonoured due to insufficient funds.
Dear Sir,
Under instructions and authority from our client M/s. ________ having their office at _________, we serve upon you the following notice of demand under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act.
1. That your business concern M/s _______ had purchased from my client goods (Name and brief description of goods) vide their invoice bearing no. ___ dated ________ for Rs._______
2. On delivery of goods above mentioned, you issued a cheque bearing no. ____ dated _________ for Rs._______drawn on ____ Bank.
3. That when the aforesaid cheque was presented by our client M/s. ____ to your Bankers i.e. ________ the same was returned unpaid by the Bank with the remarks/reasons "Insufficient Funds". This fact was brought to your notice by our client vide letter dated_______.
4. That in reply to our client’s letter, you sent a letter dated ____ requesting him to deposit the cheque again with banker and assured him that they will be cleared this time.
5. My client again presented your above mentioned cheque with its bankers, this time again cheque was returned un-paid by the bank due to insufficient funds.
6. That thereafter inspite of many telephonic reminders and personal visits by the representative of our client to your office, you failed to make the payment due to our client.
7. That on account of the above facts, you are liable to be prosecuted under section 138 of the Negotiable Instrument Act, 1881 as amended upto date under which you are liable to be punished with imprisonment which may extend to one year or with fine which may extend to twice the amount of cheque or with both.
8. Under the circumstances, we call upon you to make the payment of Rs. _____ being the principal amount of the aforesaid cheque along with interest @ ____ % per annum till the time of actual payment within a period of 15 (fifteen) days from the date of receipt of this notice, failing which we will be bound to take further necessary action under the provisions of Negotiable Instrument Act, 1881 against you in the competent court of law at your risk and cost.
This is without prejudice to all other legal rights and remedies available to our client for the above-stated purpose.
Kindly take notice.
Date:____________ Yours faithfully,
Monday, November 30, 2009
points regarding to notice
Tenant cannot be told to pay arrears after eviction proceedings:
Now a tenant cannot be directed to pay arrears after being ordered evicted on the ground of wilful default under the rent laws of Tamil Nadu.
A recent judgment delivered during February 2009 by the Madurai Bench of the Madras High Court has clearly reversed the order passed by the Rent Controller.
In an eviction proceeding, the Rent Controller ordered the tenant to be evicted with a consequent direction to pay arrears of rent. Though the tenant handed over the premises did not comply with the direction to pay the rental arrears. The landlord filed a petition to arrest the tenant for not complying the direction of the court to pay the arrears of rent.
The Rent controller ordered the arrest of the tenant. This was challenged by the tenant before the High Court, which has now ruled that the “rent controller could direct tenants to deposit arrears only as a pre condition for participating in rent control proceedings and not otherwise”.
Setting aside the order passed by the Rent Controller’s for arrest of the tenant the High Court has also ordered that the only remedy for the landlord was to file money suit before competent court for recovery of arrears of rent.
This judgment in one way has clearly ordered the statutory authority to function within the four corners of the statute and not travel beyond that. But this would multiply the proceedings as the landlord has been ordered to take a separate recourse to filing of civil suit for the recovery of arrears of rent. This judgment would clearly affect the rights of the innocent landlords as they are now forced to file the civil suit and wait for long period to recover their money from the tenants. A more simplified and short process is necessary for innocent landlords to recover their money from the tenants who refuse to pay arrears for months and years together. Or otherwise the statute may be amended to confer powers on the rent controller itself to direct payment of arrears of rent so that prolonged litigations can be avoided among tenants and landlords.
Now a tenant cannot be directed to pay arrears after being ordered evicted on the ground of wilful default under the rent laws of Tamil Nadu.
A recent judgment delivered during February 2009 by the Madurai Bench of the Madras High Court has clearly reversed the order passed by the Rent Controller.
In an eviction proceeding, the Rent Controller ordered the tenant to be evicted with a consequent direction to pay arrears of rent. Though the tenant handed over the premises did not comply with the direction to pay the rental arrears. The landlord filed a petition to arrest the tenant for not complying the direction of the court to pay the arrears of rent.
The Rent controller ordered the arrest of the tenant. This was challenged by the tenant before the High Court, which has now ruled that the “rent controller could direct tenants to deposit arrears only as a pre condition for participating in rent control proceedings and not otherwise”.
Setting aside the order passed by the Rent Controller’s for arrest of the tenant the High Court has also ordered that the only remedy for the landlord was to file money suit before competent court for recovery of arrears of rent.
This judgment in one way has clearly ordered the statutory authority to function within the four corners of the statute and not travel beyond that. But this would multiply the proceedings as the landlord has been ordered to take a separate recourse to filing of civil suit for the recovery of arrears of rent. This judgment would clearly affect the rights of the innocent landlords as they are now forced to file the civil suit and wait for long period to recover their money from the tenants. A more simplified and short process is necessary for innocent landlords to recover their money from the tenants who refuse to pay arrears for months and years together. Or otherwise the statute may be amended to confer powers on the rent controller itself to direct payment of arrears of rent so that prolonged litigations can be avoided among tenants and landlords.
Saturday, October 10, 2009
firmware
In computing, firmware consists of the fixed, usually rather small, programs that internally control various electronic devices. Typical examples of devices containing firmware range from end-user products such as remote controls or calculators, through computer parts and devices like hard disks, keyboards, TFT screens or memory cards, all the way to scientific instrumentation and industrial robotics. Also more complex consumer devices, such as mobile phones, digital cameras, synthesizers, etc., contain firmware to enable the device's basic operation as well as implementing higher-level functions.
No strict or well-defined boundaries separate firmware from software; both are loose descriptive terms. However, firmware is typically involved with very basic low-level operations in a device, without which the device would be completely non-functional. Firmware is also a relative term, as most embedded devices contain firmware at more than one level. Subsystems such as LCD modules, flash chips, communication controllers etc, have their own (usually fixed) program code and/or microcode, regarded as "part of the hardware" by the higher-level firmware.
Simple firmware typically resides in ROM or OTP/PROM, while more complex firmware often employs flash memory to allow for updates. Common reasons for updating firmware include fixing bugs or adding features to the device. Doing so usually involves loading a binary image file (provided by the manufacturer) into the device, according to a specific procedure; this is sometimes intended[by whom?] to be done by the end user.
No strict or well-defined boundaries separate firmware from software; both are loose descriptive terms. However, firmware is typically involved with very basic low-level operations in a device, without which the device would be completely non-functional. Firmware is also a relative term, as most embedded devices contain firmware at more than one level. Subsystems such as LCD modules, flash chips, communication controllers etc, have their own (usually fixed) program code and/or microcode, regarded as "part of the hardware" by the higher-level firmware.
Simple firmware typically resides in ROM or OTP/PROM, while more complex firmware often employs flash memory to allow for updates. Common reasons for updating firmware include fixing bugs or adding features to the device. Doing so usually involves loading a binary image file (provided by the manufacturer) into the device, according to a specific procedure; this is sometimes intended[by whom?] to be done by the end user.
rom
Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM cannot be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to require frequent updates).
In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified. However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash EEPROM can be erased and re-programmed multiple times; they are still described as "read-only memory"(ROM) because the reprogramming process is generally infrequent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit random access writes to individual memory locations. Despite the simplicity of mask ROM, economies of scale and field-programmability often make reprogrammable technologies more flexible and inexpensive, so mask ROM is rarely used in new products as of 2007[update].
memory permit some degree of modification:
Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links (fuses or antifuses) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once.
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again requires application of higher than usual voltage. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and include no window; these are effectively PROM.
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases).
Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) is a type of EEPROM that can be modified one bit at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again requires higher voltage (usually around 12 V) than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial rewriting. EAROM may be used as non-volatile storage for critical system setup information; in many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM supplied by mains power and backed-up with a lithium battery.
Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND flash makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a capacity as high as 16 GB as of 2007[update]; this feature, along with its endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace magnetic in some applications (such as USB flash drives). Flash memory is sometimes called flash ROM or flash EEPROM when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.
By applying write protection, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory.
[edit] Other technologies
There are other types of non-volatile memory which are not based on solid-state IC technology, including:
Optical storage media, such CD-ROM which is read-only (analogous to masked ROM). CD-R is Write Once Read Many (analogous to PROM), while CD-RW supports erase-rewrite cycles (analogous to EEPROM); both are designed for backwards-compatibility with CD-ROM
In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified. However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash EEPROM can be erased and re-programmed multiple times; they are still described as "read-only memory"(ROM) because the reprogramming process is generally infrequent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit random access writes to individual memory locations. Despite the simplicity of mask ROM, economies of scale and field-programmability often make reprogrammable technologies more flexible and inexpensive, so mask ROM is rarely used in new products as of 2007[update].
memory permit some degree of modification:
Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links (fuses or antifuses) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once.
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again requires application of higher than usual voltage. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and include no window; these are effectively PROM.
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases).
Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) is a type of EEPROM that can be modified one bit at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again requires higher voltage (usually around 12 V) than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial rewriting. EAROM may be used as non-volatile storage for critical system setup information; in many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM supplied by mains power and backed-up with a lithium battery.
Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND flash makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a capacity as high as 16 GB as of 2007[update]; this feature, along with its endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace magnetic in some applications (such as USB flash drives). Flash memory is sometimes called flash ROM or flash EEPROM when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.
By applying write protection, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory.
[edit] Other technologies
There are other types of non-volatile memory which are not based on solid-state IC technology, including:
Optical storage media, such CD-ROM which is read-only (analogous to masked ROM). CD-R is Write Once Read Many (analogous to PROM), while CD-RW supports erase-rewrite cycles (analogous to EEPROM); both are designed for backwards-compatibility with CD-ROM
Monday, October 5, 2009
lan
1 Introduction to Local Area Networks
1.1 What are networks?
That seems like an appropriate question to start with. Pretty much anything that’s connected
to anything else in some way can be described as a network. In this course, we’ll be primarily
concerned with Local Area Networks.
1.2 What are Local Area Networks?
Local Area Networks are generally networks that are limited to a relatively small area, such
as a room, building, campus, etc. Larger networks are generally called “Metropolican Area
Networks”, or “Wide Area Networks”.
The IEEE definition of a LAN is: “A LAN is a data communication system allowing a
number of independent devices to communicate directly with each other, within a moderately
sized geographical area over a physical communication channel of moderate data rate.”
In short, a LAN is usually a fast small network.
It is important to realize that most of the higher level protocols used on LANs are exactly
the same protocols that are used in most ‘networks’. For example, you use TCP/IP on the
Internet, and you’d also use it on a LAN.
2 LAN Components
A LAN is a combination of hardware and software.
2.1 The Hardware
The hardware consists of stations, transmission media, and connecting devices.
2.1.1 Stations
Stations are actual devices that connect to the network. These can be computers, printers,
etc.
2.1.2 Transmission Media
The transmission media is the stuff through which signals travel. It can be guided as in the
case of a wire, or unguided as in the case of air (wireless).
2.1.3 Connecting Devices
Besides the wires and stations, there are also connecting devices. There are two ‘types’:
1. Transceivers and all the other stuff that’s used to connect a station to the medium.
2. Bridges, repeaters, etc., stuff that’s used to connect segments of a LAN.
1
2.2 The Software
There are two primary categories of software, the Operating System, and Application Programs.
2.2.1 Network Operating System
There needs to be some software at the operating system level that manages the network
connection. Most modern operating systems are capable of using the network.
2.2.2 Application Programs
The primary purpose of having a LAN is to allow several application programs to talk to
each other.
3 LAN Models
There are several ways of organizing (or modeling) a LAN (or just about any other network).
One way is to organize it as a Client/Server model, and another way is to organize it as a
Peer-to-Peer model.
3.1 Client/Server
In client/server models, there are some stations which are called servers, and lots of other
stations called clients. Normally, a client connects to a server to perform some service—such
as printing, accessing a file, or send email, etc.
In a small network, there may only be one server that handles many services (for example,
one computer on a LAN may act as a web-server, a print server, and a file server).
3.2 Peer-to-Peer
In a Peer-to-Peer model, no stations is specifically dedicated to be a client or a server. Each
station can take on whatever role from time to time when needed.
4 LAN Applications
One obvious use for a LAN is in an office environment. A LAN allows folks to share resources,
such as hardware (printing), software (running things off the network drive), sharing data
(file servers), etc. LANs can also be used for user communication, and when hooked up to
the Internet, users can access the Internet via their LAN.
Other uses for LANs include the manufacturing sector—where a central server can coordinate
the activities of many factory machines, etc.
2
4.1 Backbone Networks
High speed LANs can be used to connect many slower networks together.
3
1.1 What are networks?
That seems like an appropriate question to start with. Pretty much anything that’s connected
to anything else in some way can be described as a network. In this course, we’ll be primarily
concerned with Local Area Networks.
1.2 What are Local Area Networks?
Local Area Networks are generally networks that are limited to a relatively small area, such
as a room, building, campus, etc. Larger networks are generally called “Metropolican Area
Networks”, or “Wide Area Networks”.
The IEEE definition of a LAN is: “A LAN is a data communication system allowing a
number of independent devices to communicate directly with each other, within a moderately
sized geographical area over a physical communication channel of moderate data rate.”
In short, a LAN is usually a fast small network.
It is important to realize that most of the higher level protocols used on LANs are exactly
the same protocols that are used in most ‘networks’. For example, you use TCP/IP on the
Internet, and you’d also use it on a LAN.
2 LAN Components
A LAN is a combination of hardware and software.
2.1 The Hardware
The hardware consists of stations, transmission media, and connecting devices.
2.1.1 Stations
Stations are actual devices that connect to the network. These can be computers, printers,
etc.
2.1.2 Transmission Media
The transmission media is the stuff through which signals travel. It can be guided as in the
case of a wire, or unguided as in the case of air (wireless).
2.1.3 Connecting Devices
Besides the wires and stations, there are also connecting devices. There are two ‘types’:
1. Transceivers and all the other stuff that’s used to connect a station to the medium.
2. Bridges, repeaters, etc., stuff that’s used to connect segments of a LAN.
1
2.2 The Software
There are two primary categories of software, the Operating System, and Application Programs.
2.2.1 Network Operating System
There needs to be some software at the operating system level that manages the network
connection. Most modern operating systems are capable of using the network.
2.2.2 Application Programs
The primary purpose of having a LAN is to allow several application programs to talk to
each other.
3 LAN Models
There are several ways of organizing (or modeling) a LAN (or just about any other network).
One way is to organize it as a Client/Server model, and another way is to organize it as a
Peer-to-Peer model.
3.1 Client/Server
In client/server models, there are some stations which are called servers, and lots of other
stations called clients. Normally, a client connects to a server to perform some service—such
as printing, accessing a file, or send email, etc.
In a small network, there may only be one server that handles many services (for example,
one computer on a LAN may act as a web-server, a print server, and a file server).
3.2 Peer-to-Peer
In a Peer-to-Peer model, no stations is specifically dedicated to be a client or a server. Each
station can take on whatever role from time to time when needed.
4 LAN Applications
One obvious use for a LAN is in an office environment. A LAN allows folks to share resources,
such as hardware (printing), software (running things off the network drive), sharing data
(file servers), etc. LANs can also be used for user communication, and when hooked up to
the Internet, users can access the Internet via their LAN.
Other uses for LANs include the manufacturing sector—where a central server can coordinate
the activities of many factory machines, etc.
2
4.1 Backbone Networks
High speed LANs can be used to connect many slower networks together.
3
file server
In computing, a file server is a computer attached to a network that has the primary purpose of providing a location for the shared storage of computer files (such as documents, sound files, photographs, movies, images, databases, etc.) that can be accessed by the workstations that are attached to the computer network. The term server highlights the role of the machine in the client-server scheme, where the clients are the workstations using the storage. A file server is usually not performing any calculations, and does not run any programs on behalf of the clients. It is designed primarily to enable the rapid storage and retrieval of data where the heavy computation is provided by the workstations.
Saturday, October 3, 2009
volatile and non volatile memory
Volatile memory, also known as volatile storage, is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information, unlike non-volatile memory which does not require a maintained power supply. It has been less popularly known as temporary memory.
Most forms of modern random access memory (RAM) are volatile storage, including dynamic random access memory (DRAM) and static random access memory (SRAM). Content addressable memory and dual-ported RAM are usually implemented using volatile storage. Early volatile storage technologies include delay line memory and Williams tube
Non-volatile memory, nonvolatile memory, NVM or non-volatile storage, is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory, flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punch cards.
Non-volatile memory is typically used for the task of secondary storage, or long-term persistent storage. The most widely used form of primary storage today is a volatile form of random access memory (RAM), meaning that when the computer is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost. Unfortunately, most forms of non-volatile memory have limitations that make them unsuitable for use as primary storage. Typically, non-volatile memory either costs more or performs worse than volatile random access memory.
Several companies are working on developing non-volatile memory systems comparable in speed and capacity to volatile RAM. For instance, IBM is currently developing MRAM (Magnetoresistive RAM). Not only would such technology save energy, but it would allow for computers that could be turned on and off almost instantly, bypassing the slow start-up and shutdown sequence.
Non-volatile data storage can be categorised in electrically addressed systems (read only memory) and mechanically addressed systems (hard disks, optical disc, magnetic tape, holographic memory and such). Electrically addressed systems are expensive, but fast, whereas mechanically addressed systems have a low price per bit, but are slow. Non-volatile memory may one day eliminate the need for comparatively slow forms of secondary storage systems, which include hard disks.
Most forms of modern random access memory (RAM) are volatile storage, including dynamic random access memory (DRAM) and static random access memory (SRAM). Content addressable memory and dual-ported RAM are usually implemented using volatile storage. Early volatile storage technologies include delay line memory and Williams tube
Non-volatile memory, nonvolatile memory, NVM or non-volatile storage, is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory, flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punch cards.
Non-volatile memory is typically used for the task of secondary storage, or long-term persistent storage. The most widely used form of primary storage today is a volatile form of random access memory (RAM), meaning that when the computer is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost. Unfortunately, most forms of non-volatile memory have limitations that make them unsuitable for use as primary storage. Typically, non-volatile memory either costs more or performs worse than volatile random access memory.
Several companies are working on developing non-volatile memory systems comparable in speed and capacity to volatile RAM. For instance, IBM is currently developing MRAM (Magnetoresistive RAM). Not only would such technology save energy, but it would allow for computers that could be turned on and off almost instantly, bypassing the slow start-up and shutdown sequence.
Non-volatile data storage can be categorised in electrically addressed systems (read only memory) and mechanically addressed systems (hard disks, optical disc, magnetic tape, holographic memory and such). Electrically addressed systems are expensive, but fast, whereas mechanically addressed systems have a low price per bit, but are slow. Non-volatile memory may one day eliminate the need for comparatively slow forms of secondary storage systems, which include hard disks.
Saturday, September 19, 2009
secound generation language
Assembly or assembler language was the second generation of computer language. By the late 1950s, this language had become popular. Assembly language consists of letters of the alphabet. This makes programming much easier than trying to program a series of zeros and ones. As an added programming assist, assembly language makes use of mnemonics, or memory aids, which are easier for the human programmer to recall than are numerical codes.
Second-generation language arose because of the programming efforts of Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist and Naval officer. Hopper developed FLOW-MATIC, a language that made programming easier for the naval researchers using the ENIAC computer in the 1940s. FLOW-MATIC used an English-based language, rather than the on-off switch language the computer understood. FLOW-MATIC was one of the first "high-level" computer languages. A high-level computer language is one that is easier for humans to use but which can still be translated by another program (called a compiler) into language a computer can interpret and act on.
Second-generation language arose because of the programming efforts of Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist and Naval officer. Hopper developed FLOW-MATIC, a language that made programming easier for the naval researchers using the ENIAC computer in the 1940s. FLOW-MATIC used an English-based language, rather than the on-off switch language the computer understood. FLOW-MATIC was one of the first "high-level" computer languages. A high-level computer language is one that is easier for humans to use but which can still be translated by another program (called a compiler) into language a computer can interpret and act on.
first generation computer language
A computer language is the means by which instructions and data are transmitted to computers. Put another way, computer languages are the interface between a computer and a human being. There are various computer languages, each with differing complexities. For example, the information that is understandable to a computer is expressed as zeros and ones (i.e., binary language). However, binary language is incomprehensible to humans. Computer scientists find it far more efficient to communicate with computers in a higher level language.
A first-generation programming language is a machine-level programming language.
Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble the first-generation language. The first-generation programming instructions were entered through the front panel switches of the computer system.
The main benefit of programming in a first-generation programming language is that the code a user writes can run very fast and efficiently, since it is directly executed by the CPU. However, machine language is a lot more difficult to learn than higher generational programming languages, and it is far more difficult to edit if errors occur. In addition, if instructions need to be added into memory at some location, then all the instructions after the insertion point need to be moved down to make room in memory to accommodate the new instructions. Doing so on a front panel with switches can be very difficult. Furthermore, portability is significantly reduced - in order to transfer code to a different computer it needs to be completely rewritten since the machine language for one computer could be significantly different from another computer. Architectural considerations make portability difficult too. For example, the number of registers on one CPU architecture could differ from those of another.
A first-generation programming language is a machine-level programming language.
Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble the first-generation language. The first-generation programming instructions were entered through the front panel switches of the computer system.
The main benefit of programming in a first-generation programming language is that the code a user writes can run very fast and efficiently, since it is directly executed by the CPU. However, machine language is a lot more difficult to learn than higher generational programming languages, and it is far more difficult to edit if errors occur. In addition, if instructions need to be added into memory at some location, then all the instructions after the insertion point need to be moved down to make room in memory to accommodate the new instructions. Doing so on a front panel with switches can be very difficult. Furthermore, portability is significantly reduced - in order to transfer code to a different computer it needs to be completely rewritten since the machine language for one computer could be significantly different from another computer. Architectural considerations make portability difficult too. For example, the number of registers on one CPU architecture could differ from those of another.
Friday, September 18, 2009
Difference between l1,l2,l3
what is cache?
A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses are cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main memory.
When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or writes to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory.
The diagram on the right shows two memories. Each location in each memory has a datum (a cache line), which in different designs ranges in size from 8[1] to 512[2] bytes. The size of the cache line is usually larger than the size of the usual access requested by a CPU instruction, which ranges from 1 to 16 bytes. Each location in each memory also has an index, which is a unique number used to refer to that location. The index for a location in main memory is called an address. Each location in the cache has a tag that contains the index of the datum in main memory that has been cached. In a CPU's data cache these entries are called cache lines or cache blocks.
Most modern desktop and server CPUs have at least three independent caches: an instruction cache to speed up executable instruction fetch, a data cache to speed up data fetch and store, and a translation lookaside buffer used to speed up virtual-to-physical address translation for both executable instructions and data.
what is l1,l2,l3
L1 cache is physically next to the processing core and is implemented in SRAM, or Static RAM which is fast and constant when powered on. It does not require refresh cycles. It is generally split with half used for instruction code and the the other used for data.
L2 cache is physically close to the core, but is implemented in DRAM or Dynamic RAM and goes through refresh cycles many time a second to retain its memory. It is not as fast as L1 and cannot be accessed during refresh.
L3 cache has come into vogue with the advent of multi-core CPUs. Whereas these chips will have both L1 and L2 caches for each separate core; there is a common fairly large L3 shared by all cores. It is usually the size of all other caches combined or a few multiples of all other caches combined. It is also implemented in DRAM. One unusual thing is that a multi-core chip that is running software that may not be capable of or need all cores will have a core flush its caches into the L3 before that core goes dormant
Saturday, June 13, 2009
women power
without women can't live so why not accepted this truth by Indian people,women can do easily all types of jobs what man do.But man can't,is he? she has great gift of god. yes, its"creativity","management",has in her blood .In all area women harassed at one or more reason whether place is her house or out of house ,more or less.I think major reason are men's jealousy about women.Generally people says jealousy seen in "women" not in men but its not true.Indian people would have to change their thinking otherwise they loose compare to foreign countries because of double man power.
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